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Kashmir was conquered by an Afghan ruler in 1752.Mughal,Afghan,Sikh and Dogra rule are all equally and deeply resented in Kashmir.

Yet another name which comes up in connection to Kashmir is that of Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah ?

Kashmir’s tallest political leader, Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah organized and then split the Muslim opposition to Dogra rule-the Muslim Conference. Abdullah split Muslim Conference to form National Conference which in turn espoused secular, democratic politics and forged close ties with the nationalist struggle in India.Many Leftists in Kashmir joined National Conference.The CPI (then united) sees in Kashmir,"the launcing pad for socialism in South Asia".

What is the Naya Kashmir Manifesto ? Is it like the Communist Manifesto ?

Well, the spirit is the same. National Conference adopted the Naya Kashmir Manifesto in 1942.It envisaged radical social change. Abdullah launched a Quit Kashmir movement in 1946.

Was it like the Quit India movement ?

More of an anti-feudal struggle, Quit Kashmir movement drew its inspiration from the Quit India movement .Sheikh Abdullah declared that ‘Quit Kashmir is not a question of revolt. It is a matter of right.’ The struggle carried on upto 1947.This struggle has been brilliantly documented by Pandit Prem Nath Bazaz in Frredom Struggle in Kashmir.

That again brings us to 1947 ?

Hari Singh, to  save his throne toyed with the idea of an independent Kashmir. By August 1947,a ‘standstill agreement’ between the Maharaja and Pakistan  put Kashmir’s Post and Telegraph services and the supply of essential commodities under Pakistan.

But the Maharaja acceded to India ?

Whether Maharaja acted hastily isn't too clear but he had no choice. Revolt in Poonch had brought in tribal invaders from Pakistan's North West.The communal situation in Jammu had further complicated matters.By late October,the tribal invaders had closed in on Srinagar.Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession to India on 26 October 1947(there is a serious controversy over t
 airlifted from Delhi held back the raiders and this led to the first Indo-Pak war over Kashmir.

And the outcome of this war?

UN intervention.United Nations brokered the Ceasefire that left two-thirds of Jammu and Kashmir with India and the rest with Pakistan.

That settled it then. The Indian Jammu and Kashmir becomes an integral part of India.Isn’t it ?

Things were far more complicated than that. Pandit Nehru, the then Prime Minister of India, didn’t want what he called forced unions. India wanted the accession to be ratified by the people of Jammu and Kashmir with a referendum held under international auspices. In an address to the nation on 3rd November, 1947, Pandit Nehru said, "We have declared that the fate of Kashmir is ultimately to be decided by the people. That pledge we have given not only to the people of Kashmir but to the world. We will not and cannot back out of it".

You imply Plebiscite ?

India’s and Pakistan’s commitment to the idea of a referendum or Plebiscite led the United Nations Commission on India and Pakistan to adopt resolutions of August 13,1948 on Kashmir that envisaged plebiscite in J&K.Now these are the UN Resolutions on Kashmir.

Wasn’t there any plebiscite ?

No. Partly because both India and Pakistan had serious doubts on their chances.

What is the Article 370 ?

The Instrument of Accession limited the accession to defence, foreign affairs and communications. India’s Constituent Assembly inserted a special provision in the Indian Constitution, Article 306A,that allowed for such autonomy to J&K- even this was supposed to be ‘an interim system’. This is the pre-1953 status of J&K. Article 306A later on became Article 370 which didn’t CONFER any status on J&K but CONFIRMED the status which the State already enjoyed.

If plebiscite didn’t happen, then…?

Sheikh Abdullah was frustrated by the deadlock over Kashmir .This led Abdullah to form the Constituent Assembly of J&K in 1951 for which the National Conference won all 75 seats unopposed. THIS Constitue
ly, the representative character of which has been questioned, ratified Kashmir’s accession to India and enshrined Article 306A as Article 370 of the Indian Constitution. This came to be known as the Delhi Agreement.

Why then was Sheikh Abdullah arrested in 1953 ?

Sheikh Abdullah was believed to be seriously thinking of an independent Kashmir. Though there was flimsy evidence ,Sheikh was arrested in 1953.Sheikh’s meetings with Adlai Stevenson and the US ambassador Loy Henderson had created enough suspicion. Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad who was installed in his place accused Sheikh Abdullah of    trying to set up another Korea in Kashmir and argued for closer union to India. Sheikh Abdullah was detained under the Kashmir Conspiracy Case.

And yes, why is Lal Chowk called so ?

Lal Chowk is named after Red Square. There was a strong Kashmiri Left movement in `40s and `50s.The anti-feudal struggle in Kashmir was imbued with socialist ideals that led to radical Land Reforms in 1950.

Why did India go back on its commitment on plebiscite ?

This happened in 1954 when Pakistan joined an American military alliance and India announced that Kashmir’s accession to India is final and the elections to the Constituent Assembly should be considered surrogate for plebiscite. When Khruschev, the then General Secretary of the CPSU visited Kashmir,  Kashmir was refered to as “ one of the states of India”. But the incorporation of J&K was officially declared to be complete on 26 January 1957.Thus the 1949 Ceasefire line became the de facto border between India and Pakistan dividing Kashmir.

So what did the Sheikh and his friends do ?

Mirza Afzal Begh, a close confidante of Sheikh, formed the Plebiscite Front that campaigned for a plebiscite to settle the Kashmir problem.

What about Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad ?

Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad was Shiekh Abdullah’s lieutenant until 1953. Bakshi, G M Sadiq and Begh were Sheikh Abdullah’s closest associates and leaders of the National Conference. Bakshi deposed Sheikh for maneuv
 Kashmir and succeeded in passing a resolution in the J&K Constituent Assembly that declared Kashmir to be an integral part of India. Bakshi gave an effective but corrupt administration.

Weren’t there any  elections in Kashmir ?

In 1957 Bakshi’s party won the elections,43 of the seats unopposed .Again in 1972,Bakshi’s party won 70 seats. Both the elections were widely believed to be rigged. The only reasonably fair elections in Kashmir were held in 1977 in which Sheikh Abdullah won a landslide victory. In 1967,the Congress party won the elections by getting 118 nomination papers cancelled. In 1964,the Constitution of J&K was amended-the Prime Minister of J&K was now to be the Chief Minister and the President was replaced by a Governor to be appointed by the Centre. The Sadiq faction of the National Conference became the local Congress.

And the Plebiscite Front ?

Many leaders of the Kashmiri secessionism became associated with politics when Sheikh Abdullah was sent to prison in 1953.
  
Wasn’t there any  popular protest by Kashmiris ?

Of course. All this was to later explode in an angry outburst that had a discernible anti-India tenor in 1963 over the theft of the  hair of Prophet Muhammad from the Hazratbal mosque at Srinagar . This came to be known as the Moe-Muqaddas agitation. It galvanized Kashmiri masses into political agitation. Finally Sheikh Abdullah was released. The Moe-Muqaddas agitation was interpreted by Pakistan as pro-Pakistan sentiment and encouraged them to attack Kashmir in 1965.

Why was Sheikh Abdullah released ?

Nehru urged Sheikh to travel to Pakistan to push for a lasting solution to the Kashmir problem. It was believed that Nehru wanted Abdullah to suggest a confederation between India, Pakistan and Kashmir.

Did Sheikh Abdullah travel to Pakistan  ?

Sheikh Abdullah and Mirza Afzal Begh traveled to Pakistan on 24 May,1964. But the Sheikh’s deliberations in Pakistan were hastily aborted by Nehru’s demise on May 27, 1964.

And then?

Jayaprakash Narain, the res
er visited Pakistan. Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan met in Karachi yet there was no end to the stalemate over Kashmir. 

Any other protests in Kashmir ?

Kashmir was relatively calm but the extension of Article 356 and 357 that gave the Union government of India powers to impose President’s rule in  J&K sparked off protests.

And Sheikh Abdullah?

Abdullah traveled to London and Algiers. Abdullah’s meeting with the Chinese Prime Minister Chou En Lai angered New Delhi. Abdullah’s passport was cancelled by India. Sheikh rejected the offer of a Pakistani passport only to be arrested on his return .The Valley burst out in protest as the Lion of Kashmir was incarcerated in Kodaikanal , Tamil Nadu.

What about the 1965 War between India and Pakistan on Kashmir ?

Or the Operation Gibraltar. Between June and August 1965 there was Pakistani infiltration in Kashmir. It was believed by Pakistan that Kashmiris will join the infiltrators and Pakistan Army will intervene to free Kashmir. However, Kashmiris didn’t side with the infiltrators. A full-fledged India-Pakistan war broke out in 1965.

And what happened?

A Ceasefire was announced on 13 September ,1965 to end a war which was never formally declared. Both India and Pakistan were frustrated by Western intervention and Soviet Union moved to help India and Pakistan reach an agreement. Ayub and Shastri met in Tashkent. ‘The Tashkent Declaration’ of 10 January,1966 underplays Kashmir. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the then Foreign Minister of Pakistan, saw it as a sellout on Kashmir and was forced to resign.

The Plebiscite Front-what about them?

The Plebiscite Front decided to contest the local elections in 1969 and was all set to participate in the State elections.It was then that Plebiscite Front was banned by India in 1971.

Isn’t 1971 the year of yet another Indo-Pak war?

The war is preceded by the Ganga Hijacking. An Indian Airlines plane called Ganga is hijacked to Lahore by two Kashmiris. Before India responds to the hijackers' demands the passen
 are set free by the hijackers and the plane is set  on fire. The Ganga hijacking is mired in controversy. All these events renew hostility between India and Pakistan while accusations and counteraccusations are hurled. 

And then we witnessed another Indo-Pak war …Though the war wasn’t fought on Kashmir, did it have any effect on the Kashmir problem?

It demoralized the Kashmiri leadership as they thought that after its triumph in the war India won’t relent to a compromise on Kashmir.

What is the Simla Agreement?

Simla Agreement is the agreement between the then Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and the then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, signed on 2nd July 1972 which formally ended the 1971 war. It envisages a peaceful relationship between the two countries  which is sought to be governed by the principal of bilateralism .The Simla Agreement has been brought into play by India to rule out any third party intervention on Kashmir as well as to soft-pedal the Kashmir issue even as Pakistan takes it to mean that  Kashmir can be settled through bilateral negotiations.

How did the Kashmiri leadership react to these developments ?

They reacted with their own “compromise” on Kashmir. Sheikh signed an accord on November 13, 1974 with Indira Gandhi which came to be known as the Beg- Parthasarthy Accord or the Kashmir Accord of 1975.Sheikh Abdullah became Chief Minister but at the cost of huge and unpopular concessions to the Centre.

And then Sheikh Abdullah remained Chief Minister?

Until Sheikh died in 1982.Farooq Abdullah, Sheikh’s son, took over. Farooq’s National Conference swept the polls in 1984.

Why then was Farooq Abdullah dismissed in 1984 ?

Farooq Abdullah was ‘punished’ by Indira Gandhi. Farooq had organized a conclave of Opposition parties in Srinagar which angered Mrs.Gandhi enough to engineer the split in  National Conference that brought Farooq’s brother-in-law G M Shah as Chief Minister. Farooq’s dismissal is mired in controversy. Ironically this was the first t
olitics had attempted to connect itself to India’s national politics.

How long did G M Shah stay as Chief Minister?

G M Shah’s rule was quite unpopular –the State government resorted to curfews to quell opposition. Jagmohan , the then governor of J&K, took over from Shah as Governor’s rule was imposed in J&K.

And Farooq Abdullah?

Farooq Abdullah was elbowed into an alliance by the Congress(I) government at the Centre. National Conference-Congress(I) alliance faced Muslim United Front-the Muslim Opposition that also comprised the secessionists in an election in 1987. The keenly contested election ended in widespread rigging to bring back Farooq into power. For Kashmiris the NC- Congress(I) alliance gave the impression of a sellout and revived memories of 1975 Kashmir Accord which had ‘defanged’ the Lion of Kashmir,Sheikh Abdullah. National Conference brutally suppressed the secessionists .The ‘unholy alliance’ and the State repression built the legitimacy for the armed rebellion. Many in the Opposition felt betrayed by India.

Like who?

Like Syed Salahudin, the Supreme Commander of the Hizbul Mujahideen, who “lost” the Amirakadal Constituency in Srinagar to National Conference in the 1987 State Assembly elections. Many of the militant leaders of the 1990s had participated in the 1987 election campaign of the Muslim United Front.

So that brings us close to the Kashmir Uprising in early 1990?

It formally begins with the JKLF’s sporadic acts of violence in 1988 and 1989.1990 becomes the year of the Kashmiri Uprising against the Indian State.